Nominal damages are awarded when:

解析

Nominal damages are a token sum recognising that a right was invaded where no substantial loss was proved; Civil Code §3360 provides for them expressly. They are not pointless: a nominal award still establishes the breach, which can carry a costs or attorney's-fee entitlement with it. (c) describes compensatory damages, the ordinary measure under Civil Code §3300. (d) describes punitive damages under §3294, which punish rather than recognise and are unavailable on a contract claim. (a) describes liquidated damages under §1671 — a figure the parties agreed to in advance, which displaces the need to prove loss at all.