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加州保险法 §22 将保险定义为：一方承诺对另一方因或然或未知事件造成的损失、损害或责任予以补偿的合同。保险的核心是对或然损失的补偿，而非保证利润、支付年金或汇集储蓄。

保险公司只承保纯风险，即只有损失或无损失两种结果的情况。商业经营的盈利机会属于投机风险，因为还包含获利的可能，无论从承保还是公共政策角度，投机风险都不可承保。

心理（习惯性）危险是指被保险人因知道自己有保险而变得粗心的行为。它不同于道德危险（涉及欺诈或不诚实意图），也不同于物理危险（如锁具损坏等有形条件）。

大数法则是保险的统计学基础：观察到的相似风险单位越多，实际损失就越接近预测平均值。损失补偿、最大诚信和附合性描述的是合同的法律特征，并非用于预测的统计工具。

逆向选择是指高于平均风险者比一般公众更积极地申请保险的倾向。承保标准（包括拒保和加费的权利）正是为了控制逆向选择，使风险池保持平衡。

保险合同的四项要件是要约与承诺、对价、具备法律行为能力的当事人、合法目的。无须公证，保险合同可通过口头暂保单或经接受的投保单成立，无需公证人参与。

射幸合同是指双方所交付的对价不相等且取决于偶然事件的合同。被保险人可能交付少量保费却获得巨额赔付，或多年缴费却一分未获。单务、条件和双务描述的是合同的其他特征。

保险单是由保险公司起草并按”接受或拒绝”方式提供的附合合同。根据加州长期判例法，合同中的任何含糊之处都按对起草方不利的方式解释，即对保险公司不利、对被保险人有利。

加州保险法 §286 要求财产保险利益必须在损失发生时存在。卖方在火灾前已经转让所有权，因此出险时没有保险利益，不能依据该保单获得任何赔付。这与人寿保险形成关键对比——人寿保险的保险利益只需在保单签发时存在。

根据加州保险法 §§330–334，隐瞒是指未告知自己知道且应当告知的重大事实。受损方（通常是保险人）有权解除合同，无论隐瞒是否出于故意。保险人无须证明欺诈即可以隐瞒为由解除合同。

代位求偿是指保险人赔付被保险人之后，承继被保险人的地位向对损失负有法律责任的第三方追偿。代位求偿落实了损失补偿原则，防止被保险人双重获偿，并将损失成本转嫁给真正的过错方。共保和再保险解决的是不同问题。

加州保险法 §2051 将实际现金价值（ACV）定义为出险时的重置成本减去折旧，这是加州大多数财产损失的默认估值方法。使用了15年的屋顶按折旧后价值赔付，而不是按新屋顶价格。带折旧留存的重置成本险是另一项可选保障（§2051.5）。

应保额 = 80% × $500,000 = $400,000。实际保额 = $300,000。赔付 =（实际 ÷ 应保）× 损失 =（$300,000 ÷ $400,000）× $100,000 = 0.75 × $100,000 = $75,000。即使损失小于保额，因投保不足，共保条款仍按比例扣减赔付。

按比例分摊的其他保险条款下，每家保险公司按其保额占总保额的比例分担。总保额 = $400,000 + $600,000 = $1,000,000。A保单份额 = $400,000 ÷ $1,000,000 = 40% × $200,000 = $80,000。B保单承担剩余的60% = $120,000。

百分比免赔额是按房屋（A项）保额的百分比计算的，而非按损失百分比。15% × $400,000 = $60,000。保险公司将赔付剩余的$30,000。百分比免赔额常见于加州地震险以及其他地区的飓风险，因为它能显著降低保险人在巨灾事件中的敞口。

Insurers cover pure risk, which is a situation with only two possible outcomes: a loss or no loss, with no possibility of gain. Speculative risk (such as gambling or investing) includes a chance of gain and is not insurable, because insurance is meant to restore a loss, not create profit. Market and dynamic risks generally involve speculative elements and broad economic change that are not suited to insurance pooling.

A morale hazard is an attitude of carelessness or indifference to loss because the person knows insurance will pay (for example, leaving a car unlocked). A physical hazard is a tangible condition that increases the chance of loss, such as an oily rag pile. A moral hazard involves dishonesty, such as intentionally causing a loss to collect. Distinguishing morale from moral hazard is a common exam point: morale is carelessness, moral is dishonesty.

Indemnity means restoring the insured to the approximate financial condition they were in just before the loss, so they are made whole but do not profit. Paying the full limit regardless of the actual loss would violate indemnity by allowing gain. Property insurance is built on indemnity, which is why concepts like actual cash value, deductibles, and other-insurance clauses exist to prevent overpayment.

In property and casualty insurance, insurable interest must exist at the time of the loss, because the purpose is to indemnify an actual financial loss. This differs from life insurance, where insurable interest must exist only when the policy begins. A person who has sold the covered property before a loss no longer has an insurable interest and cannot collect.

A contract of adhesion is prepared by one party (the insurer) and offered to the applicant on a take-it-or-leave-it basis, with no negotiation of terms. Because the insured did not write the wording, any ambiguity is generally interpreted in favor of the insured. This is separate from the contract being unilateral (only the insurer makes a legally enforceable promise) and aleatory (an unequal exchange of value dependent on chance).

Insurers underwrite pure risk, where the only outcomes are a loss or no loss. The second location is a speculative risk because it can also produce a gain, and paying for that would turn insurance into an investment. Calling the earnings exposure a physical hazard confuses a tangible condition that raises the chance of loss with a business decision taken for profit.

The law of large numbers says that as the number of similar, independent exposure units grows, actual results move closer to the predicted results, which is what lets an insurer price a class. Adverse selection describes who buys coverage, not how accurately losses can be forecast. Indemnity limits recovery to the amount of loss and has nothing to do with forecasting accuracy.

Adverse selection is the tendency of applicants with a higher-than-average chance of loss to seek insurance most eagerly, so a single average price attracts the worst risks and repels the best. Underwriting and classification exist to counter it. Moral hazard is a different problem: dishonesty by an insured who wants a loss to happen, not a pricing distortion in who applies.

A peril is the cause of loss itself, such as fire; a hazard is a condition that makes the loss more likely or more severe. Brittle wiring and a blocked exit are tangible conditions, so they are physical hazards. Morale hazard is carelessness that grows out of having insurance, and moral hazard is outright dishonesty such as arson, neither of which is a physical condition of the building.

Retention means funding losses internally, and it fits exposures that are frequent but small, because such losses are predictable and cheap to absorb while insuring them would cost more in expense loading than the losses themselves. Transfer through insurance is reserved for the opposite profile, low frequency and high severity. Avoidance would mean giving up the hauling operation altogether.

An insurable risk should not be catastrophic to the insurer, because a peril that hits a huge share of the book at the same moment destroys the pooling on which pricing depends; that is why such exposures move to reinsurance, pools or federal programs. The other three are requirements an insurable exposure should meet: losses must be definite and measurable, accidental, and significant enough to be worth insuring.

Aleatory describes an exchange of unequal value that turns on an uncertain event: a small premium may buy a very large claim payment, or produce no payment at all. The description of only one enforceable promise is what makes the contract unilateral, the duties-before-payment description is what makes it conditional, and the take-it-as-written description is adhesion. All four labels fit an insurance policy, but each names a different feature.

Only the insurer gives a legally enforceable promise, namely to pay covered losses; the insured merely pays premium and can stop at any time, which is why an insured cannot be sued for declining to renew. The equal-value description contradicts the aleatory nature of the contract. Note that the promise is still conditional, since the insurer owes nothing until the policy conditions are met.

Concealment is the silent withholding of a material fact that the applicant knows and the insurer would want, and because insurance is a contract of utmost good faith it can give the insurer grounds to void the policy even though no question was asked. Treating the insurer's silence as a waiver misstates waiver, which is the intentional giving up of a known right by the insurer, not the applicant's own choice to stay quiet.

A warranty is a statement guaranteed to be true that is written into the contract, so even a small untruth can give the insurer grounds to void coverage. A representation is only offered as true to the best of the applicant's knowledge, and it must be both false and material before the insurer can act on it. The belief-based description therefore defines a representation, not a warranty.

Property insurance indemnifies a financial stake, so the insured must stand to lose something when the loss happens; the seller who no longer owns the warehouse suffers no loss and collects nothing. Requiring the interest only at issue would let a policy pay someone who has since walked away, which is exactly the wagering that the rule prevents. Life insurance takes the opposite approach, testing the interest at inception.

Indemnity aims to restore the insured to the same financial position as before the loss and no better, and an actual cash value settlement does exactly that by subtracting depreciation. Replacement cost pays for new property without that deduction, so the insured can end up better off, making it a recognized exception. Subrogation and coinsurance support indemnity rather than defeat it, one by preventing a double recovery and the other by policing the amount carried.

Subrogation lets the insurer step into the insured's place and pursue the party at fault, and policy conditions require the insured to do nothing after a loss that impairs that right. A release given to the responsible contractor destroys the right, so the insurer can reduce or deny the claim to that extent. Suing the contractor anyway is not open to the insurer, because it can have no better claim than the insured it stands in for.

Waiver is the voluntary giving up of a known right, and estoppel prevents a party from taking back a position that the other side reasonably relied on to its detriment; by handling the claim as though the late proof were acceptable, the insurer gave up that defense. Adhesion is described backwards here, because ambiguous wording drafted by the insurer is construed against the insurer and in favor of the insured.

Apparent authority arises when the insurer's conduct leads a reasonable applicant to believe the producer holds powers the written contract never granted, and the insurer is bound by acts within that appearance. Express authority is what the agency agreement states in words, and implied authority is what is incidental to carrying out the express grant, such as ordering supplies or paying office staff.

A broker is legally the representative of the client and shops the market for that client, while an agent represents the insurer under an agency contract and can commonly bind coverage for it. Saying a broker is appointed by the insurer describes an agent instead. Both are licensed producers who owe duties to the people they serve, so the idea that a broker owes the buyer nothing is wrong.

Premiums collected by a producer belong to the insurer or the client, not to the agency, so they are trust funds and the producer holds them as a fiduciary; spending them on agency overhead is commingling and conversion. Rebating is a different offense, the giving of value not stated in the policy to induce a sale, and it says nothing about how collected money is banked.

A binder is temporary evidence of real coverage that bridges the gap before the policy is delivered, and it ends when the policy is issued or when the insurer declines the risk. Coverage under a binder does not wait for the premium to be paid, and a binder may be oral where the producer holds binding authority, although prudent practice is to confirm it in writing. The insurer can still decline and issue nothing.

A mutual insurer is owned by the policyholders it insures, and any divisible surplus is returned to them as policyholder dividends rather than paid out to investors. A stock insurer is owned by shareholders who elect the board and receive stock dividends, which is the description offered in two of the wrong answers. Assessable policies exist in some mutuals but are not a feature of every mutual line.

A reciprocal is an unincorporated group of subscribers who insure one another, run by an attorney-in-fact who handles underwriting and claims for the group. A captive is formed by a parent organization to insure that parent's own exposures, and a risk retention group is a member-owned insurer restricted to liability coverage for members in a similar business, so neither uses an attorney-in-fact structure.

Lloyd's is not an insurance company but an organized marketplace in which syndicates, backed by their members, underwrite risks brought to them by brokers; the liability sits with the members of each syndicate rather than with Lloyd's itself. It is often used for unusual or hard-to-place exposures. A rating bureau does something different, gathering loss data and filing loss costs that insurers may use.

A non-admitted insurer holds no certificate of authority in the state, so its policies fall outside the state guaranty fund and the insured bears the insolvency risk; in exchange it has far more freedom in rates and forms, which is what allows it to write hard-to-place exposures. Surplus lines placements are generally allowed only after a diligent search shows the admitted market has declined the risk.

Residual markets are the market of last resort for applicants who cannot buy coverage in the voluntary market, and the burden is generally spread among the insurers writing that line, not funded by a federal appropriation. Coverage is real insurance that is paid for, usually at a higher price and sometimes with narrower terms. Reinsuring the industry against catastrophe years is a wholly separate function.

Under a treaty the reinsurer agrees in advance to accept all business falling inside the defined class, so no risk is offered or judged individually. Facultative reinsurance is the opposite, with each risk submitted and the reinsurer free to decline it. Primary insurers buy either form to add capacity for large accounts, to smooth results, to guard against a catastrophe and to relieve pressure on surplus.

McCarran-Ferguson declares that regulating and taxing insurance is in the public interest as a matter for the states, and it holds most federal law back to the extent that a state actually regulates the subject. That is why licensing, rate filings and market conduct are state functions across all lines. It is not a blanket exemption from federal law, and there is no single federal insurance commissioner.

A rate is built from the expected loss cost plus expenses plus an allowance for profit and contingencies, so adequacy asks whether the price will fund the losses and costs of the class and keep the insurer solvent. Not excessive means the price is not unreasonably high for the coverage given, and not unfairly discriminatory means insureds with similar loss potential are charged similarly, which is not the same as charging everyone the same amount.

Workers compensation is rated on payroll within each governing class code, priced per $100 of remuneration, because payroll tracks both the number of workers exposed and the time they spend at the work. Sales receipts and area are common exposure bases for general liability instead, and a simple headcount ignores wages, hours and the differing hazard of each job classification.

The combined ratio adds the loss ratio to the expense ratio, so 68% plus 29% gives 97%. A figure under 100% means the insurer collected more premium than it paid out in losses and expenses, which is an underwriting profit before investment income is counted; a figure above 100% would be the underwriting loss. Subtracting the two ratios has no meaning, and expenses are very much part of the calculation.

Failing to place or amend coverage that a client asked for is professional negligence, and errors and omissions insurance is the policy written for exactly that exposure. A general liability policy answers for bodily injury and property damage liability, not for the purely financial loss a professional mistake causes, so it would not respond. A fidelity bond covers dishonest acts such as theft by an employee, not an honest mistake in servicing an account.

The federal statute bars anyone convicted of a felony involving dishonesty or breach of trust from engaging in the business of insurance affecting interstate commerce unless written consent is granted by the appropriate insurance regulatory official, and it also penalizes any insurer that knowingly employs such a person. Simply waiting out a period of years, disclosing the conviction or moving the person to a back-office role does not satisfy it.

When a consumer report contributes to an adverse decision such as a declination or a higher rate, the insurer must give the consumer an adverse-action notice identifying the reporting agency and explaining the right to obtain a copy and to dispute what it says. The agency, not the insurer, supplies the report to the consumer. Underwriting is a permissible purpose, so a separate written permission is not what the act demands here.

The act's make-available requirement means the insurer must offer coverage for certified acts of terrorism on terms that do not differ materially from the rest of the policy, and it must disclose the premium for it; the buyer is then free to accept or reject the offer. Coverage is neither automatic and free nor forbidden, and the federal backstop shares losses after a certified event rather than taking the whole exposure by cession.

Rebating is the offer of any inducement not specified in the policy, such as paying part of the premium or sharing a commission, to persuade someone to buy. Twisting is a different unfair practice, using misrepresentation to talk a policyholder into dropping one policy for another, and unfair discrimination is charging insureds of like risk different prices. All are unfair trade practices, but only one describes paying the client's premium.